It sounds like on this particular engine by running without the alternator belt you also ran without the waterpump, which is why the engine temperatures climbed so high.
So, the most likely scenario is that your engine has suffered damage from overheating: warped head, scored pistons, etc, something that has reduced your compression. Poor compression = white smoke. Or, the headgasket was damaged as the result of overheating and is now bleeding coolant into the engine. Steam = white smoke.
Advancing the timing (cold start handle) will improve combustion slightly even with reduced compression and therefore decrease the white smoke if it's due to compression issues.
The injection pump is self-cooled by the diesel fuel it pumps and would have not suffered any ill effects as the result of a missing alternator belt. The good news is that you're not going to need a new injection pump.

Assuming my "alt belt = water pump on your version of the AAZ engine" theory is correct, best bet now is to do a compression test and assess the health of the engine.